Last month we discussed the archaeological evidence present on the islands of Cyprus and Crete that point to Phoenician colonization and trade. This article will examine the farthest reaches of the Mediterranean world and show that Phoenicians were settling and trading in areas as far away as North Africa, Sardinia, and Spain. The city-states that made up the Phoenicians were vital to trade in the ancient world, notice the many nations God mentioned that were trade partners with them (Ez. 27:3-25). This was not a small trade network, but a vast and intricate web that spun throughout the Mediterranean.

            One of the most famous Phoenician colonies was Carthage. Tyrian colonists settled Carthage around 800 B.C., but the Phoenicians may have been traveling to this region earlier, due to cattle bones found that predate the founding of the city. The similarities between the Phoenicians and Carthaginians are overwhelming. Both the Phoenicians and Carthaginians worshipped Baal and the other Canaanite deities (1 Kgs. 16:31). The most extraordinary connection is that archaeology has unearthed strange religious structures that many believe to be Tophets, which were altars used to sacrifice children. The Bible describes these objects, but none have been found in Palestine (2 Kgs. 23:10; Jer. 7:31). The Tophets at Carthage housed several pots that contained the burnt bones of different children. After the Phoenician city-states fell to Nebuchadnezzar, Carthage became its own entity. It stood as a world power until the Romans destroyed Carthage after the Punic Wars.

             Sardinia is a large island to the West of Italy. On this island an artifact was unearthed called the Nora Stone. This stone is an ancient stele dated to the 9^th-8^th century B.C. and is the oldest Phoenician inscription found on Sardinia. The dating is accurate because the style and letters used is similar to other stele’s found in Palestine that date to this period. The message of the stele is still unknown, but the majority of the text has been deciphered. The two leading theories for its purpose is that it was a memorial to a Phoenician conquest or commemoration for a temple to a Phoenician god. What is bizarre with this stone is that within its text it mentioned Tarshish, which the Bible mentions several times as well (Ez. 27:12, 25; Jon. 1:1-3). In fact, Solomon sent ships to Tarshish with Hiram king of Tyre every 3 years to trade (2 Chr. 9:21). When God destroyed Tyre and Sidon, Tarshish would lament because it had gained much wealth from Phoenician trade (Is. 23). Was Sardinia close to the Biblical Tarshish?

West of Sardinia is southern Spain and archaeologists have discovered that the Phoenicians were in fact trading here as early as the 9^th century B.C. Phoenician colonies were set up near the Straits of Gibraltar, Ibiza, and other locations and were like factories used to work and store minerals exploited from the region. Not only did the Phoenicians inhabit this area, but they also traded with the indigenous people. Sites such as Sant-Jaume and Aldovesta are testaments to how Phoenician trade shaped Spanish culture. A 36-piece tableware set used for feasting was found at Sant-Jaume. The majority of the cups and vessels in this set were Phoenician in origin, signifying that the locals quickly incorporated Phoenician goods into their own. Also, evidence of a Middle-East practice of spicing wine with honey has been found, which was not present in Spain until Phoenician trade was established. The question that has baffled scholars for decades is did the Phoenicians go farther than Spain? Philip Beale, a British naval adventurer, recently built and sailed a replica Phoenician ship from Tunisia (Carthage) to the Dominican Republic. What this expedition proved is that the ancient Phoenicians could travel across the open seas and may have been the first to cross the Atlantic Ocean.

-Brandon Foresha

The period of Israel’s history immediately following the death of Moses was filled with transition. Israel had to make the transition to a new leader and go into a new land, trusting God would deliver the inhabitants, the Canaanites, into their hands. Joshua was the successor of Moses (Josh. 1:5). He is first introduced in Exodus 17 where he fought the Amalekites at Rephidim. The book that bears his name relates the history of Israel in their conquest of Canaan, the land God promised to them. God’s people had their shortcomings, they often lacked faith, yet they were successful in major military campaigns against the people of Canaan because of their God (Josh. 12:1-24). Joshua displayed good leadership (Josh. 1:16-18). He followed God’s commands, was sensitive to the offense the nation’s sins were to God (Josh. 7:25), and exhorted the people to do the same (Josh. 24:15). With a man as great as Moses passing from this earthly life, the nation of Israel could have been in great jeopardy, but, thankfully, Joshua had been prepared in such a way that the transition went well. Joshua led Israel to follow God. This was God’s plan; He commissioned Joshua, filled with the spirit of wisdom, to take on the responsibilities of the role Moses had filled (Num. 27:18-23; Deut. 1:38; 31:3, 7, 23; 34:9).

Glimpses of the preparation for this transition are seen in the life of Joshua before it came to fruition. His leadership in the battle against the Amalekites has already been mentioned (Ex. 17:8-16). This prepared him for the battles he would see in Canaan. Joshua as “a young man” was a servant of Moses (Ex. 33:11). He remained nearest to Moses when the law was received at Mt. Sinai (Ex. 24:13; 32:17), and did not depart from the tent of meeting where the Lord would speak to Moses (Ex. 33:7-11). Joshua was one the twelve spies sent into the land of Canaan (Num. 13:8). More importantly he was one of the two who gave a faithful report, believing that God was able to bring Israel into the land, delivering its mighty inhabitants into their hands (Num. 14:6-10). For Joshua’s rebuke of the congregation’s lack of faith, they were ready to stone him, but God spared his life from the plague that killed the ten unfaithful spies, allowing him to live to enter the land of promise (Num. 14:10, 38-39; 32:12). This should be regarded as a badge of honor, for that faithless generation was often ready to stone Moses when the problem was their own evil hearts of unbelief.

Joshua spent time with Moses. He displayed the fortitude to stand as a leader. When Moses wanted to continue on and enter the land, the Lord instructed him not to keep speaking of entering the land, “But command Joshua, and encourage him and strengthen him; for he shall go over before this people, and he shall cause them to inherit the land which you will see” (Deut. 3:28). We must be ready for transition in the Lord’s church. The roles we fill will not be filled by us forever. Instead of acting like we will always be around, we must spend time with the younger generation who will be our successors. We must encourage and strengthen them. They, like Joshua, must learn God’s word and not turn from it to the right or left (Josh. 1:7, 8). They must learn now to be strong and have courage to lead when we are gone (Josh. 1:6, 9).                   

-Mark Day

God sent Isaiah to faithfully proclaim the truth to people: truth that would make their hearts calloused, their ears dull, and their eyes shut (Isa. 6:8-10). Isaiah’s preaching repelled people. It drove them away; thus, Isaiah asked how long he would have to keep this up (v. 11). God told Isaiah to continue preaching the truth until the cities of Judah are destroyed and without inhabitants because the people have been sent into exile (v. 11). Isaiah was to continue preaching if even a tenth remained for God’s people would be like a tree hacked down to its stump (v. 13). Isaiah 11 shows that only after the tree was felled could a shoot one day spring up from the stump. God wanted His message preached even when seemingly everyone would resist it, defy it, and go to destruction.

When Jesus came into the world to declare the truth, He had a similar situation with certain people to whom He preached. They did not believe Him because He told the truth (Jn. 8:45). The truth was distinctly the reason why they refused to believe. So how was Jesus to respond? Did he soften up His message or offer them entertaining stories instead? No. Jesus continued making the truth known to all. He had already shown that if the multitudes left, He would not chase after them (Jn. 6:66). The few who continued to follow Him recognized, with Peter, that seeking some other teacher was futile, for Jesus had the words of eternal life (Jn. 6:68).

Jesus identified saving truth as God’s word (Jn. 17:17). Only following the truth—the word of the Lord—will make one a true disciple of Jesus and free from sin (Jn. 8:31-32).  Jesus is referred to as the Word in John 1. He is “full of grace and truth” (Jn. 1:14). He said plainly, “I am the way, the truth, and the life, No one comes to the Father except through Me” (Jn. 14:6). That’s the exclusivity of truth: there is no other way. Forfeiting truth to please the multitudes saves no one. Preachers must continue in the doctrine if they and those to whom they preach will be saved (1 Tim. 4:16). They must preach the word even when it is “out of season” and people turn their ears from the truth (2 Tim. 4:2-4).

Those who delight in unrighteousness suppress the truth (Rom. 1:18). Their lives and words are aimed at hindering the truth of the Gospel. However, we must not give up proclaiming the truth for we know that the only way for people to be saved is to come to a knowledge of it (1 Tim. 2:4). Though some may consider us enemies because we tell them the truth (Gal. 4:16), we must continue to speak the truth in love (Eph. 4:15). Some will not receive a love of the truth to be saved; thus, they will believe a lie and perish (2 Thess. 2:10)

God’s word will accomplish what He has intended (Isa. 55:10-11). Truth will thresh the wheat from the chaff, separating those who are honest from those who love unrighteousness. Jesus told us that even family members would be divided by whether or not to follow Him (Mt. 10:34-36). Yet, we must love and proclaim the truth even if all the world turns against us.

-Mark Day

            We pick up where we left off last month’s bulletin article concerning the Phoenicians unprecedented sea-faring abilities. In Homer’s writings, The Iliad and The Odyssey, the Phoenicians are described as a sea travelling people who were associated with the ancient practice of slave trade. Scholars have argued that Homer was just bias against the Phoenicians and that his claims were false. It is interesting that the Bible described the Phoenicians in the same exact way; seafarers and slave traders (Is. 23:1-4; Joel 3:4-6). The focus of this bulletin article will be the extent of their colonies/trade posts across the Mediterranean world.

            The first permanent settlement established by the Phoenicians was on the island of Cyprus, not far from the cities of Tyre and Sidon. Most historians believe that Canaanites (from whom Phoenicians descended) were trading with people of Cyprus as early as 1650 B.C., due to Cyprus’ abundant supply of copper. The Phoenicians clearly continued this trade. What archaeology has found is a major change in daily life and burial practices took place around 1100 B.C., which were not present on the island prior. A common Phoenician burial practice, that of burying an infant in a Levantine jar, has been unearthed at several locations on Cyprus. Burial practices are not easily changed; and these jars being found point to Phoenicians living on the island with the aboriginal people. The most compelling evidence for Phoenicians living on Cyprus is the temple of Kition, which is the largest Phoenician style temple found to date. This was not the only Phoenician temple on the island, but several have been found that follow the same design as temples in Tyre and Sidon. If we consider why the Phoenicians colonized or set up a trade post on Cyprus, it makes logical sense. If your nation revolves around open sea trade, would you not need places to break up a long journey? Cyprus seems to have been the ancient “truck stop” for Phoenician merchants trading around the Mediterranean Sea.

            Crete, home to the ancient civilization of the Minoans, was the next location to be inhabited by Phoenicians. The island of Crete has the largest number of Phoenician potteries in the Aegean world. A large cache of Phoenician storage potteries dated to 900 B.C. have been unearthed at Kommos, pointing to the probability that this site was used as a loading/unloading base for Phoenician goods. More solid evidence for Phoenicians inhabiting Crete is the remarkable Near-eastern metal workings found on the island. Bronze vessels and jewelry from Phoenicia or Syria have been found in several tombs on Crete. One bronze bowl, found at the Tekke tomb, had a Phoenician inscription etched into it that signified the person buried within was the owner of the bowl. The Cretans had their own language, why would they display their ownership of a bowl with a Phoenician inscription? Just like on Cyprus, archaeologists have also unearthed a drastic change in funerary rites and temple design that coincided with the dates of the Phoenician pottery and metal working being introduced. Phoenician cippus, which are stone funerary monuments, have been found on Crete. These funerary monuments have no parallel in Aegean funerary practices, which simply means Greeks did not bury their dead in this manner. Based on archaeological findings on this island, the evidence points that a Phoenician colony was established, and the residents lived peacefully with the indigenous population on the island. Ezekiel wrote this concerning Tyre’s domain, “Your borders are in the midst of the seas” (Ezek. 27:4). Both the island settlements at Cyprus and Crete show the accuracy of Ezekiel’s statement!

-Brandon Foresha